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> **Original source:** https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_fashion?utm_source=openai

Sustainable fashion displayed by Swedish models, 2020

**Sustainable fashion** is a term describing efforts within the [fashion industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fashion_industry "Fashion industry") to reduce its [environmental impacts](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion "Environmental impact of fashion"), protect workers producing garments and uphold [animal welfare](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_welfare "Animal welfare").[\[1\]](#cite_note-1)[\[2\]](#cite_note-2) [Sustainability](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability "Sustainability") in fashion encompasses a wide range of factors, including cutting [CO2 emissions](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions "Greenhouse gas emissions"), addressing [overproduction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overproduction "Overproduction"), reducing [pollution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollution "Pollution") and waste, supporting [biodiversity](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity "Biodiversity") and ensuring that [garment workers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garment_workers "Garment workers") are paid a [fair wage](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_wage "Fair wage") and have safe working conditions.[\[3\]](#cite_note-3)

In 2020, it was found that voluntary, self-directed reform of [textile manufacturing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_manufacturing "Textile manufacturing") supply chains by large companies to reduce the environmental impacts was largely unsuccessful.[\[4\]](#cite_note-destin-4)[\[5\]](#cite_note-5) Measures to reform fashion production beyond [greenwashing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenwashing "Greenwashing") require policies for the creation and enforcement of [standardized](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standardization "Standardization") certificates, along with related [import](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Import "Import") controls, subsidies,[\[6\]](#cite_note-6) and interventions such as [eco-tariffs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eco-tariffs "Eco-tariffs").[\[7\]](#cite_note-7)[\[8\]](#cite_note-8)[\[9\]](#cite_note-9)

## Background and history

\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_fashion&action=edit&section=1 "Edit section: Background and history")\]

In the early 1990s, roughly coinciding with the 1992 [United Nations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") Conference on Environment and Development, popularly known as the [Rio Earth Summit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_Summit "Earth Summit"), 'green issues' (as they were called at the time) made their way into fashion and textile publications.[\[10\]](#cite_note-10)[\[11\]](#cite_note-11) These publications featured companies such as [Patagonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patagonia_\(clothing\) "Patagonia (clothing)") and [ESPRIT](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esprit_Holdings "Esprit Holdings"). Doug Tompkins and Yvon Chouinard noted that exponential growth and consumption are not sustainable.[\[12\]](#cite_note-12) In the late 1980s, they commissioned research into the impact of fibers used in their respective companies. Fiber and fabric processing are still the norm in sustainable fashion 30 years on.[\[13\]](#cite_note-Fletcher-2008-13)

In 1992, the ESPRIT e-collection was developed by head designer [Lynda Grose](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynda_Grose "Lynda Grose")[\[14\]](#cite_note-14) and launched at retail. In parallel with industry, research around sustainable fashion has been in development since the early 1990s.[\[15\]](#cite_note-15)[\[16\]](#cite_note-Timo_Rissanen-2011-16)[\[17\]](#cite_note-17) The field includes technical projects that try to improve the efficiency of existing operations.[\[18\]](#cite_note-18)[\[19\]](#cite_note-Fletcher-2016-19)

Northwestern University Library's Art Collection staff began developing a research collection of fashion materials around 2005, motivated by widespread student and faculty interest and by the increasingly scholarly nature of many fashion-related titles appearing in catalogs and approval plans.[\[20\]](#cite_note-20)

In the [European Union](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union "European Union"), the [Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Registration,_Evaluation,_Authorization_and_Restriction_of_Chemicals "Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals") (REACH) regulations required in 2007 that clothing manufacturers and importers identify and quantify the chemicals used in their products.[\[21\]](#cite_note-waste-21) In 2012, the world's largest summit on fashion sustainability was held in [Copenhagen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen "Copenhagen"), gathering more than 1,000 key stakeholders in the industry.[\[22\]](#cite_note-22) The Sustainable Apparel Coalition also launched the [Higg Index](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higg_Index "Higg Index"), a self-assessment standard for the apparel and footwear industries.[\[23\]](#cite_note-23)[\[24\]](#cite_note-24)

In 2019, the [UK Parliament](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom "Parliament of the United Kingdom")'s Environment Audit Committee published a report and recommendations on the future of fashion sustainability, suggesting wide-ranging systemic change, such as lowered [value-added tax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value-added_tax "Value-added tax") for repair services.[\[25\]](#cite_note-publications.parliament.uk-25)

Sustainable fashion followers believe the business sector can act more sustainably by pursuing profit and growth.[\[26\]](#cite_note-26) The movement believes that clothing companies should incorporate environmental, social and ethical improvements on management's agenda.[\[27\]](#cite_note-27)[\[28\]](#cite_note-28) This may include increasing the value of local production and products; prolonging the lifecycle of materials; and reducing waste. Another goal may be to educate people to practice environmentally friendly consumption by promoting the "[green consumer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical_consumerism "Ethical consumerism")".[\[29\]](#cite_note-29)[\[30\]](#cite_note-Gurova-2018-30)

Recent research shows that when fashion brands highlight how their products are made in environmentally friendly ways, people tend to think more positively about those brands. They are also more likely to buy from them and pay higher prices, especially if the brand is already familiar to them.[\[31\]](#cite_note-31)

Critics doubt the effectiveness of this. The discussions following the Burberry report of the brand burning unsold goods worth around £28.6 million (about $37.8 million) in 2018,[\[32\]](#cite_note-32) which is an [overproduction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overproduction "Overproduction").[\[25\]](#cite_note-publications.parliament.uk-25)

Traditional textile manufacturing in [Teotitlán del Valle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teotitl%C3%A1n_del_Valle "Teotitlán del Valle"). Clothes made with techniques like this are considered more sustainable than [fast fashion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_fashion "Fast fashion").

Aesthetic and [social preferences](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_preferences "Social preferences") of fashion change over time, leading to some items becoming obsolete and affecting garment lifespans.[\[33\]](#cite_note-KF_1-33) The [fast fashion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_fashion "Fast fashion") business model became dominant in the 21st century, leading to an increase in the consumption of inexpensive garments.[\[34\]](#cite_note-Bick-2018-34) This model can disincentivize companies from making [durable](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durability "Durability") products.[\[33\]](#cite_note-KF_1-33) It also has significant health and environmental risks impacting [developing countries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developing_country "Developing country") and garment workers.[\[34\]](#cite_note-Bick-2018-34) The "[slow](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_movement_\(culture\) "Slow movement (culture)")" movement, particularly [slow food](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_Food "Slow Food"), has been proposed as an alternative to improve the sustainability of fashion.[\[35\]](#cite_note-Clark-2008-35)

Protesters holding a placard linking fast fashion to [climate change](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change "Climate change")

The current condition of the fashion system is related to the temporal aspects of fashion; the continuous stream of new goods onto the market, or what is popularly called "[fast fashion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_fashion "Fast fashion")". As a way to conform to the latest fashion styles, current fast fashion trends presuppose selling clothing in large quantities.[\[36\]](#cite_note-36) The quality of a garment does not necessarily translate to a slower pace of consumption and waste.[\[37\]](#cite_note-37) These releases are exacerbated by the acceleration of fashion trends. As microtrends are only lasting an average of 3 years, the demand for clothes has also accelerated.[\[38\]](#cite_note-38)

Consumption has risen to 62 million tonnes annually and is projected to reach 102 million tonnes by 2030.[\[39\]](#cite_note-FF_1-39) [Shein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shein "Shein") alone is responsible for over 6 million tons of [greenhouse gases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas "Greenhouse gas") a year from the production of polyester textiles, and uses hundreds of gallons of water per garment.[\[40\]](#cite_note-SI_1-40) The fashion industry has a value of three trillion dollars. It is two percent of the world's [gross domestic product](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gross_domestic_product "Gross domestic product").[\[41\]](#cite_note-41)

Most factories that produce "fast" clothing employ workers on low wages. Workers from Shein are reported to make as little as 4 cents per garment produced, as well as operating on 18-hour workdays with 1 day off per month.[\[42\]](#cite_note-BIS_1-42) Exploitative fast fashion production is prevalent in countries like China, Bangladesh and Vietnam.[\[43\]](#cite_note-43)

Fast fashion is interrelated with the issue of climate change as the resources used to make them (the companies where the clothing items are manufactured) release many fossil fuels to produce them.[\[44\]](#cite_note-44) With fast fashion comes the talk of socioeconomic status, creating a divide between who can afford sustainable clothing and those who can't. Companies target marginalized groups to sell fast fashion to, knowing these groups are more willing to buy clothes to fit into the society that advertisements and media sell to them.[\[45\]](#cite_note-Ray-2023-45) It doesn't help that many companies that sell fast fashion (under greenwashing pretenses) use broad and ambiguous statements to keep up with their sales goals, entering a grey area into what their business is truly selling and promoting.[\[45\]](#cite_note-Ray-2023-45)

[Slow fashion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_fashion "Slow fashion") is a proposed sustainable alternative to fast fashion.[\[46\]](#cite_note-46) The term was coined by Kate Fletcher of the Centre for Sustainable Fashion and inspired by "[slow food](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_movement_\(culture\) "Slow movement (culture)")".[\[47\]](#cite_note-Archived_copy3-47) It intends to challenge fast fashion's focus on mass-production and globalized style.[\[48\]](#cite_note-48)

A slow-fashion garment often consists of durable materials, traditional production techniques, or design concepts that are seasonless or will last for more than a season. From an environmental point of view, advocates claim it leads to less industrial waste following transient trends.[\[49\]](#cite_note-49) The Anglo-Japanese brand [People Tree](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People_Tree_Ltd. "People Tree Ltd.") was the first fashion company to receive the [World Fair Trade Organization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Fair_Trade_Organization "World Fair Trade Organization") product label in 2013.[\[50\]](#cite_note-50)

The concept of slow fashion has been criticized. To stop consuming "fast fashion" strikes against low-income consumers whose only means to access trends is through cheap and accessible goods.[\[51\]](#cite_note-51) Those who are already in a high position in society can afford to slow down and cement their status and position, while those on their way up resent being told to stay at the lower rungs of the status hierarchy.[\[52\]](#cite_note-52)[\[53\]](#cite_note-53)

In recent years, resale platforms such as **[Depop](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depop "Depop")**, **[The RealReal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_RealReal "The RealReal")**, and **[Vestiaire Collective](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestiaire_Collective "Vestiaire Collective")** have accelerated consumer interest in circular fashion by promoting the resale and reuse of clothing among [Gen Z](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen_Z "Gen Z") shoppers.[\[54\]](#cite_note-54)

### Garment use and lifespan

\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_fashion&action=edit&section=6 "Edit section: Garment use and lifespan")\]

The environmental impact of fashion also depends on how much and how long a garment is used. With the [fast fashion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_fashion "Fast fashion") trend, garments tend to be used half as much as compared to 15 years ago. It has been estimated that each year around $172 million worth of garments is expected to be discarded, many of them after being worn only once.[\[55\]](#cite_note-55) There has been a 7.1 kg increase in global per-capita textile production from 1975 to 2018.[\[56\]](#cite_note-56)

Typically, a garment used daily over years has less impact than a garment used once to then be quickly discarded. Studies have shown that the washing and drying process for a pair of classic jeans is responsible for almost two-thirds of the energy consumed through the whole of the jeans' life, and for underwear, about 80% of total energy use comes from laundry processes.[\[13\]](#cite_note-Fletcher-2008-13) The dyeing process also contributes around 15–20% of wastewater. For this reason, techniques are being introduced to reduce energy and water consumption, such as using CO2 in the dyeing process,[\[57\]](#cite_note-sciencedirect.com-57) where heat and pressure turn liquid CO2 into a sustainable solvent for the dye (supercritical CO2).[\[58\]](#cite_note-58)

Low-quality products that deteriorate rapidly are not as suitable to be "enchanted" with [emotional bonds](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comfort_object "Comfort object") between user and product.[\[59\]](#cite_note-59) According to a study done by Irene Maldini, keeping garments longer does not translate into lower volumes of purchased units.[\[60\]](#cite_note-60)[\[61\]](#cite_note-61)

The fashion industry has significant environmental impacts, particularly in relation to greenhouse gas emissions, water consumption, chemical pollution, and waste.[\[62\]](#cite_note-62)

[Globalization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globalization "Globalization") has made it possible to produce clothing at increasingly lower prices that many consumers consider fashion to be disposable.[\[16\]](#cite_note-Timo_Rissanen-2011-16)\[_[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources "Wikipedia:Citing sources")_\] [Developing countries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developing_countries "Developing countries") typically produce the textiles and clothing for [developed countries](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developed_country "Developed country").[\[63\]](#cite_note-Niinimäki-2020-63) In 2021, the Changing Markets Foundation released a report on the fashion industry's dependence on [oil extraction](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraction_of_petroleum "Extraction of petroleum"). The report suggested that [synthetic fibers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_fiber "Synthetic fiber") in the textile industry account for 1.35% of global oil consumption.[\[64\]](#cite_note-Changing_Markets_Foundation-2021-64): 8  Fast fashion's model leads to significant over-production, textile waste, and heavy reliance on synthetic materials produced in fossil-fuel high factories. Research has pointed out that the need for constant new inventory puts strain on manufacturers, resulting in low pay and high population output.[\[65\]](#cite_note-Yan-2021-65)

The usage level of fashion materials is 79 billion cubic meters annually.[\[66\]](#cite_note-66) Only around 20% of clothing is recycled or reused; huge amounts of fashion products end up as waste.[\[65\]](#cite_note-Yan-2021-65) It has been estimated that in the UK alone, around 350,000 tons of clothing end up in landfills every year. The average American throws away nearly 70 pounds of clothing per year.[\[67\]](#cite_note-67) Around 5% of the total waste worldwide stems from the textile industry.[\[68\]](#cite_note-68)

[Microfibers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microfiber "Microfiber") are tiny threads that are shed from fabric. One study found that 34.8% of [microplastics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microplastics "Microplastics") found in oceans come from the textile and clothing industry, and the majority of them were made of [polyester](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyester "Polyester"), [polyethylene](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyethylene "Polyethylene"), [acrylic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrylic_fiber "Acrylic fiber") and [elastane](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spandex "Spandex");[\[69\]](#cite_note-69) but a study off the coast of the UK and U.S. by the [Plymouth Marine Laboratory](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plymouth_Marine_Laboratory "Plymouth Marine Laboratory") in May 2020 suggested there are at least double the number of particles as previously thought.[\[70\]](#cite_note-70) Microfibers are also shed during wear and disposal.[\[64\]](#cite_note-Changing_Markets_Foundation-2021-64): 8  If no progress is made to reverse the effect, it has been calculated that there will be an increase of 850 metric tons of plastic debris in the ocean by 2050.[\[71\]](#cite_note-71) Research has also shown that natural textile fibres shed microfibers during washing, wear, and disposal, contributing to fibre pollution in aquatic and terrestrial environments. While synthetic microfibers persist as microplastics, natural fibre microfibers differ in composition and degradation pathways.[\[72\]](#cite_note-72)

One of the main social issues related to fashion concerns labor. Whilst the majority of fashion and textiles are produced in Asia, Central America and North Africa, there is still production across Europe where exploitative working conditions are also found, such as in [Leicester](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leicester "Leicester")[\[73\]](#cite_note-73) and Central and Eastern Europe.[\[74\]](#cite_note-74) The fashion industry has racial, class and gender inequalities.[\[75\]](#cite_note-75) Local production is engaged in global sourcing of labor exploitation.[\[76\]](#cite_note-76) At least 25 million people, the majority of whom are women, work in garment manufacture.[\[77\]](#cite_note-77) Women and workers in the garment manufacturing industry face serious occupational hazards. Worker exposure to hazardous substances can affect health and lead to long-term occupational diseases, posing major challenges to worker well-being and industry regulation.[\[78\]](#cite_note-78) Employees in their working conditions can be exposed to toxic substances.[\[79\]](#cite_note-79) Not only is there unethical practices in the production of textiles, but while in the marketing process they will promote their products as sustainable and green even though they use many polluting products.[\[80\]](#cite_note-adamkiewwicz_2022-80) To combat this issue, Europe has developed a program called REACH that regulates what inputs are being used as well as providing consumers with the proper information about these fashion products.[\[80\]](#cite_note-adamkiewwicz_2022-80) Over the last years, over 150 major brands have publicised information about their factories online. Every year, Fashion Revolution publishes a Fashion Transparency Index.[\[81\]](#cite_note-81) The high place of several fast fashion retailers caused controversy regarding the parameters used for such rankings.[\[82\]](#cite_note-82)

Research on fashion supply chains indicates that social and ethical issues such as low wages, unsafe working conditions, and limited labor protections are closely linked to the structure of global production networks. Studies have found that cost pressures, power imbalances between brands and suppliers, and a lack of transparency across supply chains often constrain suppliers' ability to improve labor standards. As a result, efforts to address labor rights in the fashion industry are frequently incorporated into broader corporate social responsibility and supply chain governance strategies rather than addressed solely at the factory level.[\[83\]](#cite_note-83)

[China](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China "China") has emerged as the largest exporter of fast fashion, accounting for 30% of world apparel exports.[\[21\]](#cite_note-waste-21) The country exports over approximately [US$](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_dollar "United States dollar")159 billion worth of clothing garments annually.[\[63\]](#cite_note-Niinimäki-2020-63) However, some Chinese workers make as little as 12–18 cents per hour working in poor conditions.[\[21\]](#cite_note-waste-21) Each year, Americans purchase approximately 1 billion garments made in China.

The opening up of China and [Vietnam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam "Vietnam") in the 1980s to private and foreign capital and investments is part of an effort to boost [living standards](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_of_living "Standard of living") and [capitalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalism "Capitalism").[\[84\]](#cite_note-Benjamin,_274-84) The retail revolution within the U.S. (example Wal-Mart, Target and Nike) and Western Europe, where companies no longer manufactured but rather contracted out their production and transformed, introducing many different product lines manufactured in foreign-owned factories in China.[\[84\]](#cite_note-Benjamin,_274-84) Countries such as [Cambodia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Cambodia#Garment_industry "Economy of Cambodia") and [Bangladesh](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_industry_in_Bangladesh "Textile industry in Bangladesh") export large amounts of clothing into the [United States](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States "United States") every year.[\[21\]](#cite_note-waste-21)

There is a multitude of emerging business models. [Patagonia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patagonia,_Inc. "Patagonia, Inc."): The gold standard for many in corporate responsibility. They are a certified [B-Corp](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_Corporation_\(certification\) "B Corporation (certification)"), repair clothing through their Worn Wear program, use recycled materials extensively, and are vocal activists for environmental causes.[\[85\]](#cite_note-85)

Research on fashion and luxury business models has highlighted tensions between sustainability objectives and prevailing industry practices.[\[86\]](#cite_note-86) Studies note that while sustainability is increasingly integrated into corporate strategies, it often conflicts with business models based on rapid product turnover, exclusivity, or constant novelty. In both fast fashion and luxury contexts, sustainability initiatives are frequently shaped by marketing considerations, creating gaps between public commitments and operational changes within supply chains.[\[87\]](#cite_note-Tsan-Ming-2015-87) As a result, scholars argue that sustainability in fashion functions not only as a material or design concern but also as a strategic business decision that requires alignment between branding, production practices, and long-term value creation.

Some business models go under the name of "[circular fashion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_fashion "Circular fashion")," inspired by the idea of a [circular economy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_economy "Circular economy"). Much of the work on circular fashion builds on initiatives in the 1990s and onwards by scholars such as [Lynda Grose](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynda_Grose "Lynda Grose"),[\[88\]](#cite_note-88) Kate Fletcher,[\[89\]](#cite_note-89) Rebecca Earley,[\[90\]](#cite_note-90) Mathilda Tham and Timo Rissanen,[\[91\]](#cite_note-91) especially the thinking around the "metabolism" of garments and wardrobes, "zero waste" production, and the focus on the whole life cycle of garments.[\[92\]](#cite_note-92)

In a circular economy, all forms of waste are returned to the economy or reused efficiently, i.e., the value of the materials is maintained as long as possible. In a circular fashion economy, products are consumed as long as their maximum value is retained. Products are designed for durability, and once discarded, they become raw material for new manufacturing, closing the loop through methods like rental, repair, recycling, and [second-hand sales](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Used_goods "Used goods").[\[45\]](#cite_note-Ray-2023-45)

The "[cradle-to-cradle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cradle-to-cradle_design "Cradle-to-cradle design")" model, a circular system named after the 2002 [book with the same name](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cradle_to_Cradle:_Remaking_the_Way_We_Make_Things "Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things") by [Michael Braungart](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Braungart "Michael Braungart") and [William McDonough](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_McDonough "William McDonough"), has been a popular proponent of circular fashion. Most textile fibers in consumer fashion are amalgamations of various materials to achieve flexible or aesthetic properties, and thus not optimal for circular reproduction. Although all work with textile waste as their raw material, it is often from [pre-consumer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-consumer_recycling "Pre-consumer recycling") origins as it is easier to sort and process. On March 30, 2022, the [European Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Commission "European Commission") published the EU Strategy for Sustainable and Circular Textiles.[\[93\]](#cite_note-93)

Closed-loop supply chain management has become a central element of sustainable fashion operations. Instead of disposing of unsold or damaged products, these systems aim to reuse, remanufacture, and recycle items to regenerate value and reduce environmental harm.[\[87\]](#cite_note-Tsan-Ming-2015-87)

Research also indicates that fast-fashion brands have adopted some of the models in response to consumer pressure and environmental regulations, incorporating remanufacturing and carbon-reduction strategies into their production and sourcing decisions.[\[87\]](#cite_note-Tsan-Ming-2015-87)

Fashion rental and [clothing swapping](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clothing_swap "Clothing swap") are models that are also known as _collaborative fashion consumption_; their environmental impact and mitigation of pollution are debated.[\[94\]](#cite_note-94)[\[95\]](#cite_note-Levänen-2021-95) Transportation between users and storage, dry-cleaning, and repackaging causes more environmental impact than reselling or [hand-me-downs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Used_good "Used good").[\[96\]](#cite_note-96)[\[97\]](#cite_note-97) As noted by Levänen et al. (2021), the lowest global warming impacts are achieved by reducing consumption, followed by reusing and recycling.[\[95\]](#cite_note-Levänen-2021-95) [Tailored couture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haute_couture "Haute couture") is another approach, with the idea being that tailored clothing can reduce mass-production.[\[98\]](#cite_note-DG_1-98) [Open-source content](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source "Open source") is a concept that builds on the sharing of patterns of clothing.[\[99\]](#cite_note-99) Examples of open-source fashion range from exchanging production techniques to materials, patterns and [makerspaces](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hackerspace "Hackerspace").[\[100\]](#cite_note-100)

People browsing a booth selling [recycled](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recycled "Recycled") vintage clothing at a local [farmers market](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmers'_market "Farmers' market").

The most sustainable fibers in fashion are the ones many people already have. Thus, to recirculate existing garments, new business models engage the resale, revival, and recirculation of used, second-hand or [vintage clothing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vintage_clothing "Vintage clothing").[\[101\]](#cite_note-Trend_report-101) Other resale models also contain elements of upcycling and repairs.[\[102\]](#cite_note-Henninger2016-102)

Some of these businesses have also shifted towards the circular model in the form of digital platforms that cater to the e-consumer population. These sites allow for e-consumers to donate or re-sell their clothing items by putting up listings for other consumer to purchase.[\[103\]](#cite_note-103) "Thrift" fashion has been influential towards the purchases of second hand goods on these online platforms, encouraging sustainable fashion.[\[104\]](#cite_note-104)

A large amount of clothing purchased annually is discarded and eventually ends up in [landfill](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landfill "Landfill").[\[105\]](#cite_note-105)[\[106\]](#cite_note-Beall-2020-106) [Charity shops](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charity_shop "Charity shop") keep a small proportion of donated clothing received.[\[107\]](#cite_note-abc-107) Some efforts have been made to [recycle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recycling "Recycling") textiles and clothing, as the technology to do this has existed for centuries.[\[108\]](#cite_note-108) However, only around 1% of recycled clothes are turned into new items, primarily due to the difficulty and high cost of separating mixed and blended textiles.[\[106\]](#cite_note-Beall-2020-106) Most discarded clothing is recycled for other uses, such as building insulation or carpet.[\[106\]](#cite_note-Beall-2020-106)

Textile recycling firms process about 70% of the donated clothing into industrial items such as rags or cleaning cloths.[\[107\]](#cite_note-abc-107) However, 20–25% of the [second-hand](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second-hand "Second-hand") clothing is sold into an international market.[\[107\]](#cite_note-abc-107) Where possible, used jeans collected from America, for example, are sold to low-income customers in Africa for modest prices, yet most end up in landfills as the average U.S.-sized customer is several sizes bigger than the global average.[\[109\]](#cite_note-109)

[Upcycling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upcycling "Upcycling") in fashion is the process of reusing the unwanted and discarded materials into new materials or products without compromising the value and quality of the used material. The definition of textile waste can be production waste, [pre-consumer waste](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-consumer_waste "Pre-consumer waste") and [post-consumer waste](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-consumer_waste "Post-consumer waste").[\[110\]](#cite_note-110) [Biomimicry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomimetics "Biomimetics") suggests a perspective emphasizing the "Wisdom of Nature", where the industry looks into materials in tune with natural cycles.[\[111\]](#cite_note-111) Biomimicry replicates the cycles of nature. Materials should be biocompatible, combining biodegradable fibers with processes of [fermentation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermentation "Fermentation") and [gasification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasification "Gasification").[\[101\]](#cite_note-Trend_report-101) [Biofabrication](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofabrication "Biofabrication") refers to the process of using [microorganisms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microorganism "Microorganism") to produce materials used by humans.[\[112\]](#cite_note-112)

## Consumption and communication strategies

\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_fashion&action=edit&section=16 "Edit section: Consumption and communication strategies")\]

For some products, the environmental impact can be greater at the use phase than material production,[\[113\]](#cite_note-113) leading, for instance, to the suggestion to wash clothes less. Consumers typically have little incentive to be active with their garments—to repair, swap and learn.[\[19\]](#cite_note-Fletcher-2016-19) There are many ways designers are trying to experiment with new models, often in relation to [Alvin Toffler](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvin_Toffler "Alvin Toffler")'s notion of the "[prosumer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosumer "Prosumer")" (a [blend](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blend_word "Blend word") of _producer_ and _consumer_).[\[114\]](#cite_note-114) Novel [technologies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clothing_technology "Clothing technology") for virtual try-ons of clothes sold via [e-commerce](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-commerce "E-commerce") may enable more sustainable fashion and reduce wasted clothes and related transportation and production expenses.[\[115\]](#cite_note-115)[\[116\]](#cite_note-116)

Recent research indicates that fashion brands adopting eco-positioning strategies — by clearly communicating their sustainable practices and enhancing brand credibility while reducing consumers' perceived risk — significantly increase willingness to purchase eco-friendly fashion products.[\[117\]](#cite_note-SciRep2025-117)

Additionally, a comparative study of university teachers and students found notable differences in their attitudes toward sustainable fashion, with teachers generally reporting stronger commitments to long-term garment use and ethical purchasing practices.[\[118\]](#cite_note-118)

No brand is considered by environmental experts to be fully sustainable, and controversy exists over exactly how the concept of sustainability can be applied in relation to fashion, if it can be used at all, or if labels such as "slow" and "sustainable" fashion are inherently an oxymoron.[\[35\]](#cite_note-Clark-2008-35) Some [comparison websites](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_shopping_website "Comparison shopping website") exist that compare fashion brands on their 'sustainability record'.[\[119\]](#cite_note-119)

In 2013, cotton and polyester accounted for almost 85% of all fibers.[\[120\]](#cite_note-120) Also, many fibers in the finished garments are mixed to acquire desired drape, flexibility or stretch.

Natural fibers are fibers which are found in [nature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature "Nature") and are not petroleum-based. Natural fibers can be categorized into two main groups, [cellulose](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulose "Cellulose") or [plant fiber](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_fiber "Plant fiber") and [protein](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein "Protein") or [animal fiber](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_fiber "Animal fiber"). Uses of these fibers can be from buttons to eyewear such as sunglasses.[\[121\]](#cite_note-121) Other than cotton, the most common plant-based fiber, [cellulose](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulose "Cellulose") fibers include: [jute](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jute "Jute"), [flax](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flax "Flax"), [hemp](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemp "Hemp"), [ramie](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramie "Ramie"), [abaca](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abaca "Abaca"), [soy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soy "Soy"), [maize](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maize "Maize"), [banana](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banana "Banana"), [pineapple](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pineapple "Pineapple"). [Bacterial cellulose](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_cellulose "Bacterial cellulose") is currently being tested and developed as a new fiber alternative.[\[122\]](#cite_note-122)

Textile worker using a bare loom in a Vietnam factory, weaving natural cotton fabrics, 2022

Cotton is a major source of apparel fiber. Cotton accounts for over 50% of all clothing produced worldwide. This makes cotton the most widely used clothing fiber.[\[123\]](#cite_note-123) Up to 1 billion people worldwide depend on the cotton industry, including 100 million smallholder farmers.[\[124\]](#cite_note-124) Cotton is one of the most chemical-intensive crops in the world, but growers in [California](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California "California") have reduced their dependence on these chemicals.[\[125\]](#cite_note-SC_1-125) Conventionally grown cotton uses approximately 25% of the world's [insecticides](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insecticides "Insecticides") and more than 10% of the world's [pesticides](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticides "Pesticides").[\[126\]](#cite_note-126) For every pound of cotton harvested, a farmer uses up 1/3 lb of chemical, synthetic fertilizer.[\[127\]](#cite_note-127)

Cotton is naturally grown in a variety of colors. Typically, cotton color can come in mauve, red, yellow and orange hues.[\[128\]](#cite_note-peruna-128) The use of [naturally colored cotton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturally_colored_cotton "Naturally colored cotton") has been historically suppressed, mainly due to the [Industrial Revolution](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution "Industrial Revolution").[\[128\]](#cite_note-peruna-128) Back then, it was cheaper to have uniformly white cotton.[\[128\]](#cite_note-peruna-128) The color of fabrics made from naturally colored cotton is harder to fade away compared to synthetically dyed cotton fabrics.[\[129\]](#cite_note-129) Though manufacturers prefer cotton to be white so that cotton can easily be synthetically dyed to any shade of color.[\[128\]](#cite_note-peruna-128) During processing, manufacturers may add bleach and various other chemicals and heavy metal dyes to make cotton pure white.[\[130\]](#cite_note-savvy-130) [Formaldehyde](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formaldehyde "Formaldehyde") resins would be added in as well to form "easy care" cotton fabric.[\[130\]](#cite_note-savvy-130)

Some cotton may be grown without the use of any genetic modification to the crops, fertilizers, pesticides or other agrochemicals.[\[131\]](#cite_note-131) All cotton marketed as organic in the United States is required to fulfill strict federal regulations regarding how the cotton is grown.[\[132\]](#cite_note-132) [Organic cotton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_cotton "Organic cotton") uses 88% less water and 62% less energy than conventional cotton.[\[133\]](#cite_note-133)

Companies have also produced [genetically modified](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified "Genetically modified") (GMO) cotton plants that are resistant to pest infestations. Among the GMO are cotton crops inserted with the Bt (_[Bacillus thuringiensis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacillus_thuringiensis "Bacillus thuringiensis")_) gene.[\[134\]](#cite_note-134) [Bt cotton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bt_cotton "Bt cotton") crops do not require insecticide applications. Insects that consume cotton containing Bt will stop feeding after a few hours and die.[\[135\]](#cite_note-135) As a result, the cost of pesticide applications decreased between $25 and $65 per acre.[\[136\]](#cite_note-bt-136) Bt cotton crops yield 5% more cotton on average compared to traditional cotton crops.[\[136\]](#cite_note-bt-136) Bt crops also lower the price of cotton by 0.8 cents per pound.[\[136\]](#cite_note-bt-136) However, insects are predicted to eventually develop resistance to the Bt strain. Researchers have found that members of a cotton bollworm species, _[Helicoverpa zea](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicoverpa_zea "Helicoverpa zea")_, were Bt-resistant in some crop areas of Mississippi and Arkansas during 2003 and 2006.[\[137\]](#cite_note-science-137) Though the vast majority of other agricultural pests remain susceptible to Bt.[\[137\]](#cite_note-science-137)

[Organic cotton](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_cotton "Organic cotton") yarn

Main article: [Soy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soy "Soy")

Soy fabrics are derived from the hulls of soybeans—a manufacturing byproduct. Soy fabrics can be blended (i.e. 30%) or made entirely out of soy fibers.[\[138\]](#cite_note-138) Soy clothing is largely [biodegradable](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodegradable "Biodegradable"). Although not as durable as cotton or hemp fabrics, soy clothing has a soft, elastic feel.[\[139\]](#cite_note-soy-139) Soy clothing is known as vegetable [cashmere](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cashmere_wool "Cashmere wool") for its light and silky sensation.[\[139\]](#cite_note-soy-139) Soy fabrics are moisture-absorbent, antibacterial and UV-resistant.[\[139\]](#cite_note-soy-139) However, soy fabrics fell out of public knowledge during [World War II](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), when [rayon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayon "Rayon"), [nylon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nylon "Nylon") and cotton sales rose sharply.[\[140\]](#cite_note-140)

Bamboo fabrics are made from heavily pulped bamboo grass. Making clothing and textiles needs less [pesticide control](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticide "Pesticide") and [agrochemicals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrochemical "Agrochemical").[\[141\]](#cite_note-versus-141) Like cotton fibers, bamboo fibers are naturally yellowish in color and are bleached white with chemicals during processing. Prior to a regulatory change in 2010, the majority of fiber and textile marketed as bamboo on the market was actually viscose rayon derived from bamboo. Now manufacturers need to label such products as rayon from bamboo.[\[142\]](#cite_note-142)

[Hemp](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemp "Hemp"), like bamboo, is considered a sustainable crop. It requires little water to grow, and it is resistant to most pests and diseases.[\[143\]](#cite_note-earth-143) Hemp fiber comes in two types: primary and secondary [bast fibers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bast_fiber "Bast fiber"). Hemp fibers are considered strong enough for construction uses.[\[144\]](#cite_note-bin-144) Compared to cotton fiber, hemp fiber is approximately 8 times the tensile strength and 4 times the durability.[\[144\]](#cite_note-bin-144)

Furnished by a grant from the [U.S. Environmental Protection Agency](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency "United States Environmental Protection Agency"), associate professor Young-A Lee and her team had grown vats of gel-like film composed of [cellulose](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulose_fiber "Cellulose fiber") fiber, a byproduct of the same symbiotic colonies of bacteria and yeast (abbreviated [SCOBY](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCOBY "SCOBY")) found in [kombucha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kombucha "Kombucha"). Once harvested and dried, the resulting material has a look and feel much like leather.[\[145\]](#cite_note-Iowa_State_University-2016-145) The fibers are [biodegradable](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodegradation "Biodegradation") and can foster a [cradle-to-cradle](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cradle-to-cradle_design "Cradle-to-cradle design") cycle of reuse and regeneration. This material takes about three to four weeks under lab-controlled conditions to grow. Tests revealed that moisture absorption from the air softens this material, which makes it less durable. Researchers also discovered that cold conditions make it brittle.[\[145\]](#cite_note-Iowa_State_University-2016-145)

Protein fibers originate from animal sources and are made up of protein molecules. The basic elements in these protein molecules are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.[\[146\]](#cite_note-146) Pesticides are conventionally used in the cultivation of [wool](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wool "Wool"), although quantities are smaller. Most commercially produced [silk](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk "Silk") involves feeding worms a carefully controlled diet of [mulberry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morus_\(plant\) "Morus (plant)") leaves grown under special conditions. The fibers are extracted by steaming to kill the silk moth [chrysalis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pupa "Pupa") and then washed in hot water. Its use in textiles is limited due to its high cost.[\[147\]](#cite_note-147) The silk industry also employs millions of people in rural China.[\[148\]](#cite_note-148)

[Cashmere](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cashmere_wool "Cashmere wool") is obtained from the fine, soft hairs of a cashmere goat's underbelly coat. Four goats are needed to produce enough cashmere for one sweater. The cashmere industry has been questioned for the working conditions of goat herders and the underpaying of farmers.[\[149\]](#cite_note-149) [Oxfam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxfam "Oxfam") reported in Spring 2021 on a project in [Afghanistan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan "Afghanistan") being undertaken jointly with the [Burberry Foundation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burberry "Burberry") and PUR Projet, working with goat farmers to promote sustainable cashmere production.[\[150\]](#cite_note-150)

### Manufactured fibers

\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_fashion&action=edit&section=24 "Edit section: Manufactured fibers")\]

Manufactured fibers sit within three categories:[\[151\]](#cite_note-151) [cellulosic fibers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulose_fiber "Cellulose fiber"), [synthetic fibers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_fiber "Synthetic fiber") and [protein fibers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_filament "Protein filament") (e.g., [azlon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azlon "Azlon")). Manufactured cellulosic fibers include [rayon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayon "Rayon") made from bamboo and wood, [lyocell](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyocell "Lyocell") (also known under the brand name Tencel) and [polylactic acid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polylactic_acid "Polylactic acid"). Lyocell has gained popularity in sustainable fashion due to its closed-loop production process, which recycles water and solvents.[\[152\]](#cite_note-152)Manufactured synthetic fibers include [polyester](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyester "Polyester"), [nylon](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nylon "Nylon"), [spandex](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spandex "Spandex"), [acrylic fiber](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrylic_fiber "Acrylic fiber"), [polyethylene](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyethylene "Polyethylene") and [polypropylene](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypropylene "Polypropylene").

Other alternative biodegradable fibers being developed by companies include: leather alternative using pineapple leaves;[\[153\]](#cite_note-ecowatch-153) [biocomposites](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biocomposite "Biocomposite"), fabrics,[\[153\]](#cite_note-ecowatch-153) and leather alternative[\[154\]](#cite_note-154)[\[155\]](#cite_note-155) using various parts of coconut; and fabric and paper made from banana plant stalks and stems.[\[153\]](#cite_note-ecowatch-153) Rayon is a fiber made out of cellulose sometimes used in fast fashion as it is cheaply manufactured.[\[156\]](#cite_note-MG_1-156)

Clothing can be made from plastic. Seventy percent of plastic-derived fabrics come from polyester, and the type of polyester most used in fabrics is [polyethylene terephthalate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyethylene_terephthalate "Polyethylene terephthalate").[\[157\]](#cite_note-157) PET plastic clothing comes from reused plastics, often recycled plastic bottles.[\[158\]](#cite_note-env-158) PET plastics have the [recycling code](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recycling_codes "Recycling codes") of one. These plastics are usually beverage bottles (i.e., water, soda and fruit juice bottles). Generally, this method is as follows: plastic bottles are compressed, baled and shipped into processing facilities, where they will be chopped into flakes and melted into small white pellets. Then, the pellets are processed again and spun into yarn-like fiber, where it can be made into clothing.[\[159\]](#cite_note-159)

Recyclables at transfer station, [Gainesville, Florida](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gainesville,_Florida "Gainesville, Florida")

Alexander Bismarck and Mitchell Jones from the [University of Vienna](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Vienna "University of Vienna") have conducted research on the possibility of using fungal species to create sustainable leather alternatives. Leather alternatives can be produced by using byproducts of agricultural products such as [sawdust](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sawdust "Sawdust"). After a few weeks, the fungal mycelium can be processed and chemically treated into a leather-like material. The process is [carbon neutral](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Net_zero_emissions "Net zero emissions").[\[160\]](#cite_note-160)

**Mycelium Leather**

[Mycelium](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycelium "Mycelium")[\[161\]](#cite_note-161) leather, also known as "Mushroom Leather," is a bio-based material that originates from the root system of fungi, referred to as mycelium. It has gained the attention of many fashion brands such as [Stella McCartney](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stella_McCartney "Stella McCartney") and [Hermès](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herm%C3%A8s "Hermès"), using the substitute as a sustainable alternative to animal leather because it is biodegradable, cruelty-free, and requires fewer resources. Mycelium is often grown in controlled environments using agricultural waste, which allows for rapid production without the large use of water and energy it would take to process traditional leather. Because of its adaptability, mycelium can be altered to recreate several different textures, thicknesses, and colors.[\[162\]](#cite_note-162)

[Zero-waste](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_waste "Zero waste") design in fashion is a concept that aims to reduce material waste throughout the textile and fashion production process. The concept has existed for a number of years.[\[163\]](#cite_note-163) [Zero-waste pattern making](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-waste_fashion "Zero-waste fashion") designs patterns for a garment so that when the pattern pieces are cut, no fabric is wasted.[\[164\]](#cite_note-164) One of the approaches is using an alternative method to traditional water dyeing; one example of such is [supercritical carbon dioxide](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercritical_carbon_dioxide "Supercritical carbon dioxide") dyeing. Different names for this process are Drydye and Colordry.[\[165\]](#cite_note-165)

[3D seamless knitting](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_garment_knitting "Complete garment knitting") is a technology that allows an entire garment to be knit. 3D seamless knitting creates the entire garment. The garments are designed using 3D software. Shima Seiki and Stoll are currently the two primary manufacturers of the technology. The technology is produced through the use of solar energy, and they are selling to brands like [Max Mara](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Mara "Max Mara").[\[166\]](#cite_note-166)

### Marketing controversies

\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_fashion&action=edit&section=29 "Edit section: Marketing controversies")\]

The increase in western consumers' environmental interest is motivating companies to use sustainable and environmental arguments solely to increase sales. Because environmental and sustainability issues are complex, it is also easy to mislead consumers. Companies can use sustainability as a "marketing ploy", which is something that can be seen as [greenwashing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenwashing "Greenwashing").[\[167\]](#cite_note-167) Greenwashing is the deceptive use of an eco-agenda in [marketing strategies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing_strategy "Marketing strategy").[\[30\]](#cite_note-Gurova-2018-30) It refers mostly to corporations that make efforts to clean their reputation because of social pressure or for the purpose of financial gain.[\[168\]](#cite_note-168)

A major controversy on sustainable fashion concerns how the "green" imperative is used as a cover-up for systemic labor exploitation, [social exclusion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_exclusion "Social exclusion") and [environmental degradation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_degradation "Environmental degradation"), what is generally labelled as "greenwashing". In this, market-driven sustainability addresses sustainability to a certain degree, as brands still need to sell more products in order to be profitable. Thus, almost any initiative towards addressing ecological and social issues still contributes to the damage. In a 2017 report, the industry projects that the overall apparel consumption will rise by 63%, from 62 million tons today to 102 million tons in 2030.[\[169\]](#cite_note-169)

### Materials controversies

\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_fashion&action=edit&section=31 "Edit section: Materials controversies")\]

Though some designers have marketed [bamboo fiber](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamboo_fiber "Bamboo fiber") as an alternative to conventional cotton, citing that it absorbs greenhouse gases during its life cycle and grows quickly without pesticides, the conversion of bamboo fiber to fabric is the same as rayon and is highly toxic. The [Federal Trade Commission](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission "Federal Trade Commission") ruled that the labeling of bamboo fiber should read "rayon from bamboo". Bamboo fabric can cause environmental harm in production due to the chemicals used to create a soft viscose from hard bamboo.[\[170\]](#cite_note-170)[\[171\]](#cite_note-171)

### Second-hand controversies

\[[edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_fashion&action=edit&section=32 "Edit section: Second-hand controversies")\]

In Tanzania, used clothing is sold at [_Mitumba_](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitumba_\(clothing\) "Mitumba (clothing)") markets ([Swahili](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swahili_language "Swahili language") for "bundles"). Most of the clothing is imported from the United States.[\[21\]](#cite_note-waste-21) However, there are concerns that trade in secondhand clothing in African countries decreases development of local industries even as it creates employment in these countries.[\[172\]](#cite_note-172) While the reuse of materials brings resource savings, there are some concerns that the influx of cheap secondhand clothing can undermine local textile and garment industries.[\[173\]](#cite_note-173)

-   [Bamboo textiles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamboo_textiles "Bamboo textiles")
-   [Biodegradable athletic footwear](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodegradable_athletic_footwear "Biodegradable athletic footwear")
-   [Digital fashion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_fashion "Digital fashion")
-   [Ecodesign](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecodesign "Ecodesign")
-   [Environmental impact of fashion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion "Environmental impact of fashion")
-   [Ethical consumerism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical_consumerism "Ethical consumerism")
-   [Fashion activism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fashion_activism "Fashion activism")

-   [Green consumption](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_consumption "Green consumption")
-   [Green textile](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_textile "Green textile")
-   [Pollution in the fashion industry](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollution_in_the_fashion_industry "Pollution in the fashion industry")
-   [Product tracing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_tracing "Product tracing") systems, which allow consumers to see the source factory of a product
-   [Reusable shopping bag](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reusable_shopping_bag "Reusable shopping bag")
-   [Textile recycling](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_recycling "Textile recycling")
-   [Trashion](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trashion "Trashion")

1.  [↑](#cite_ref-1) Fletcher, Kate (2010). "Slow Fashion: An Invitation for Systems Change". _Fashion Practice_. **2** (2): 259–265\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.2752/175693810X12774625387594](https://doi.org/10.2752%2F175693810X12774625387594).
2.  [↑](#cite_ref-2) Niinimäki, Kirsi (2013). _Sustainable Fashion: New Approaches_. Aalto University. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-952-60-5202-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-952-60-5202-1 "Special:BookSources/978-952-60-5202-1").
3.  [↑](#cite_ref-3) ["What Does 'Sustainable Fashion' Actually Mean?"](https://www.vogue.co.uk/fashion/article/sustainable-fashion). _[British Vogue](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Vogue "British Vogue")_. April 19, 2021. Retrieved October 24, 2023.
4.  [↑](#cite_ref-destin_4-0) ["Destination Zero: seven years of Detoxing the clothing industry"](https://storage.googleapis.com/planet4-international-stateless/2018/07/destination_zero_report_july_2018.pdf) (PDF). Greenpeace. Retrieved September 30, 2020.
5.  [↑](#cite_ref-5) ["Greenpeace Calls Out Nike, Adidas and Puma for Toxic Clothing"](https://www.reuters.com/article/idUS191991010320110809). _Reuters_. August 9, 2011. Retrieved September 30, 2020.
6.  [↑](#cite_ref-6) Niu, Baozhuang; Chen, Lei; Zhang, Jie (November 2017). "Punishing or subsidizing? Regulation analysis of sustainable fashion procurement strategies". _Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review_. **107**: 81–96\. [Bibcode](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_\(identifier\) "Bibcode (identifier)"):[2017TRPE..107...81N](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017TRPE..107...81N). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1016/j.tre.2017.09.010](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tre.2017.09.010).
7.  [↑](#cite_ref-7) ["Increasing Green Credentials beyond Greenwash"](https://www.theseus.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/104378/Mikkonen_Mila.pdf?sequence=1) (PDF). Retrieved November 22, 2021.
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29.  [↑](#cite_ref-29) Brown, Sass (2010). _Eco fashion_. Laurence King.\[_[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources "Wikipedia:Citing sources")_\]
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157.  [↑](#cite_ref-157) ["Why is Recycled Polyester Considered a Sustainable Textile?"](http://oecotextiles.wordpress.com/2009/07/14/why-is-recycled-polyester-considered-a-sustainable-textile/). O Ecotextiles. July 14, 2009. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20100824203859/http://oecotextiles.wordpress.com/2009/07/14/why-is-recycled-polyester-considered-a-sustainable-textile/) from the original on August 24, 2010. Retrieved December 7, 2010.
158.  [↑](#cite_ref-env_158-0) ["What is Recycled Polyester?"](http://www.natural-environment.com/blog/2008/01/27/what-is-recycled-polyester/). Natural Environment. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20101230015304/http://www.natural-environment.com/blog/2008/01/27/what-is-recycled-polyester/) from the original on December 30, 2010. Retrieved December 7, 2010.
159.  [↑](#cite_ref-159) ["Clothing Made of Recycled Plastic"](http://yesboleh.blogspot.com/2008/05/clothing-made-of-recycled-plastic.html). yesboleh.blogspot.com. May 8, 2008. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20110708072720/http://yesboleh.blogspot.com/2008/05/clothing-made-of-recycled-plastic.html) from the original on July 8, 2011. Retrieved December 7, 2010.
160.  [↑](#cite_ref-160) Jones, Mitchell; Gandia, Antoni; John, Sabu; Bismarck, Alexander (January 2021). "Leather-like material biofabrication using fungi". _Nature Sustainability_. **4** (1): 9–16\. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1038/s41893-020-00606-1](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41893-020-00606-1). [S2CID](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_\(identifier\) "S2CID (identifier)") [221522085](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:221522085).
161.  [↑](#cite_ref-161) Webb, Bella (January 13, 2022). ["Mushroom leather just got one step closer to the mainstream"](https://www.voguebusiness.com/sustainability/mushroom-leather-just-got-one-step-closer-to-the-mainstream-mycoworks-hermes). _Vogue Business_. Retrieved October 1, 2025.
162.  [↑](#cite_ref-162) Cartner-Morley, Jess (December 2, 2021). ["Californian firm touts 'mushroom leather' as sustainability gamechanger"](https://www.theguardian.com/science/2021/dec/02/californian-firm-touts-mushroom-leather-as-sustainability-gamechanger). _The Guardian_. [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [0261-3077](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077). Retrieved October 1, 2025.
163.  [↑](#cite_ref-163) Rissanen, Timo (September 6, 2018). _Zero waste fashion design_. Bloomsbury Academic. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-350-09483-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-350-09483-3 "Special:BookSources/978-1-350-09483-3"). [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [1040994499](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1040994499).
164.  [↑](#cite_ref-164) Rosenbloom, Stephanie (August 13, 2010). ["Fashion Tries on Zero Waste Design"](https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/15/fashion/15waste.html). _The New York Times_.
165.  [↑](#cite_ref-165) Fortunake, J., & Blackburn, R. (2017). _Sustainability Challenges of Textiles, Dyeing and Finishing Industries: Opportunities for Innovation._ Lecture presented at ACS Webinars.
166.  [↑](#cite_ref-166) Mutha, Subramaniam (2017). _SUSTAINABILITY IN THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY_. Singer.
167.  [↑](#cite_ref-167) Niinimäki, Kirsi (December 2015). ["Ethical foundations in sustainable fashion"](https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs40689-015-0002-1). _Textiles and Clothing Sustainability_. **1** (1) 3. [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1186/s40689-015-0002-1](https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs40689-015-0002-1).
168.  [↑](#cite_ref-168) Furlow, Nancy E. (March 2010). ["Greenwashing in the New Millennium"](http://m.www.na-businesspress.com/JABE/jabe106/FurlowWeb.pdf) (PDF). _The Journal of Applied Business and Economics_. **10** (6): 22–25\. [ProQuest](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ProQuest "ProQuest") [506504964](https://www.proquest.com/docview/506504964).
169.  [↑](#cite_ref-169) ["Pulse Fashion Report 2017"](https://web.archive.org/web/20191004220838/http://globalfashionagenda.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Pulse-of-the-Fashion-Industry_2017.pdf) (PDF). _Global Fashion Agenda, Pulse Report_. 2017. Archived from [the original](https://globalfashionagenda.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Pulse-of-the-Fashion-Industry_2017.pdf) (PDF) on October 4, 2019. Retrieved May 14, 2019.
170.  [↑](#cite_ref-170) Smith, Ray A. (May 24, 2008). ["Shades of green: decoding eco fashion's claims"](https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB121158336716218711). _[The Wall Street Journal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal "The Wall Street Journal")_. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160428161022/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB121158336716218711) from the original on April 28, 2016. Retrieved April 25, 2016.
171.  [↑](#cite_ref-171) Gould, Hannah (February 26, 2015). ["Waste is so last season: recycling clothes in the fashion industry"](https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/sustainable-fashion-blog/2015/feb/26/waste-recycling-textiles-fashion-industry). _The Guardian_. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180302103909/https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/sustainable-fashion-blog/2015/feb/26/waste-recycling-textiles-fashion-industry) from the original on March 2, 2018. Retrieved March 1, 2018.
172.  [↑](#cite_ref-172) [Allwood, Julian M.](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_Allwood "Julian Allwood") (2006). _Well dressed?: the present and future sustainability of clothing and textiles in the United Kingdom_. Univ. of Cambridge Inst. for Manufacturing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-902546-52-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-902546-52-0 "Special:BookSources/978-1-902546-52-0"). [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [441247814](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/441247814).
173.  [↑](#cite_ref-173) Fletcher, K. (2013). Sustainable fashion and textiles: design journeys. Routledge.\[_[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources "Wikipedia:Citing sources")_\]

-   Black, Sandy (2008). _Eco-chic : the fashion paradox_. London: Black Dog. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [1-906155-09-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-906155-09-7 "Special:BookSources/1-906155-09-7"). [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [966078563](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/966078563).
-   Black, Sandy (2013). _The sustainable fashion handbook_. New York: Thames & Hudson. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [9780500290569](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780500290569 "Special:BookSources/9780500290569"). [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [939743661](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/939743661).
-   Choi, Tsan-Ming; Cheng, T. C. Edwin, eds. (2015). _Sustainable fashion supply chain management: from sourcing to retailing_. Springer series in supply chain management. Vol. 1\. New York: [Springer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Science+Business_Media "Springer Science+Business Media"). [doi](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_\(identifier\) "Doi (identifier)"):[10.1007/978-3-319-12703-3](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-12703-3). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-3-319-12702-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-12702-6 "Special:BookSources/978-3-319-12702-6"). [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [907012044](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/907012044).
-   Farley, Jennifer; Hill, Colleen (2015). _Sustainable fashion: past, present, and future_. New York: [Bloomsbury Academic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomsbury_Academic "Bloomsbury Academic"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-85785-185-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85785-185-7 "Special:BookSources/978-0-85785-185-7"). [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [860754344](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/860754344).
-   Fletcher, Kate (2014) \[2008\]. _Sustainable fashion and textiles: design journeys_ (2nd ed.). London; Washington, DC: [Earthscan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthscan "Earthscan"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-415-64455-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-64455-6 "Special:BookSources/978-0-415-64455-6"). [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [846847018](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/846847018).
-   Fletcher, Kate; Grose, Lynda (2012). _Fashion & sustainability: design for change_. London: [Laurence King Publishing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurence_King_Publishing "Laurence King Publishing"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-85669-754-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85669-754-5 "Special:BookSources/978-1-85669-754-5"). [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [778610112](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/778610112).
-   Fletcher, Kate; Tham, Mathilda, eds. (2015). _Routledge handbook of sustainability and fashion_. Routledge international handbooks. London; New York: [Routledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge "Routledge"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-0-415-82859-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-82859-8 "Special:BookSources/978-0-415-82859-8"). [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [820119510](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/820119510).
-   Friedman, Vanessa (May 7, 2022). ["Redefining 'Sustainable Fashion'"](https://www.nytimes.com/2022/05/07/style/redefining-sustainable-fashion.html). _[The New York Times](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times "The New York Times")_. [ISSN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_\(identifier\) "ISSN (identifier)") [0362-4331](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331). Retrieved October 3, 2023.
-   Gardetti, Miguel Ángel; Torres, Ana Laura, eds. (2013). _Sustainability in fashion and textiles: values, design, production and consumption_. Sheffield, UK: Greenleaf Publishing. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-906093-78-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-906093-78-5 "Special:BookSources/978-1-906093-78-5"). [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [827952084](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/827952084).
-   Gwilt, Alison; Rissanen, Timo (2010). _Shaping sustainable fashion: changing the way we make and use clothes_. London; Washington, DC: [Earthscan](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthscan "Earthscan"). [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [978-1-84971-241-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84971-241-5 "Special:BookSources/978-1-84971-241-5"). [OCLC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_\(identifier\) "OCLC (identifier)") [656849440](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/656849440).
-   Shell, Hanna Rose (2020). _Shoddy : From Devil's Dust to the Renaissance of Rags_. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [ISBN](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_\(identifier\) "ISBN (identifier)") [9-780226-698-22-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9-780226-698-22-9 "Special:BookSources/9-780226-698-22-9").

-   [UN Alliance for Sustainable Fashion](https://unfashionalliance.org/)